A Counter-example to Levinsons Historical Theory of Art. Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 48:15758. Interaction: Ethical, Aesthetic, and Artistic Value 267 The ECIA is undone because its first two premises make overly strong, and, for that reason, false claims. 1959. The detection of the former requires the exercise of taste, while the detection of the latter doesnt. Imagine being transported to a planet which contains a substance that looks and behaves just like water, but in fact has a very different chemical composition. Kristellars Modern System of the Arts Reconsidered, British Journal of Philosophy 49 (2009), 124. Usually, creators of fiction have a variety of purposes in mind in presenting events we are to imagine. At best, art would have to compete with these other things.8 When one thinks, in a general way, about what we find valuable in artworks this fear may seem to be well founded. Settling this controversy brings us to the second way that intention enters the interpretation debate: with regard to the meaning Interpretation and the Problem of the Relevant Intention 149 of artworks. First, we hear emotion characteristics in music, understood as heard resemblances, but an account that stops with noting that music has such characteristics fails to give us a satisfactory conception of musical expressiveness. The fact that we have similar visual experiences with all kinds of seeing-in shows that seeing-in might be useful in giving an account of the special kind of representation of interest here: depictions. Several of the problems raised above derive from the fact that much aesthetic experience involves conceptualization and cognition of the objects of the experiences in a way forbidden for the experience of free beauty. Many individual issues are addressed in the following pages, and it is easy to ignore, or become confused about, how they fit together. The critic may be right, but so far she has just begged the question. Surely it would cease to exist even if we were able to collect all of its matter and place it in a pile. Now twilight comes; . Thomson, Judith. To adequately describe what Vermeer is doing it is enough to say that he is painting an imaginary scene without adding anything about something he is thereby pretending to do. (Notice that in this respect her motivation is very different from Budds.) One approach to aesthetics is to stick as closely as possible to the original eighteenth-century project as just described. Its not clear that it is really more informative than the direct appeal to seeing-in. Most teachers of literature, art, and music regard the cultivation of aesthetic awareness as part of their task. Perhaps it is the poet William Wordsworth. 2004. 1986. If we think that the relevant simulated emotions are instances of genuine pity or fear, perhaps we should think the same of the relevant emotional reactions to fiction. . This may cause a feeling to well up in me in some ways like standard cases of 180 Chapter Eight fear and in some ways different. Presentation and Representation. Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 56:23440. Contempt for a particular race or pleasure in the suffering of others are examples of such attitudes. A second proposal appeals to the idea of a recognitional ability as the underpinning of seeing-in. The house left a lasting, if not too pleasant, impression on me. Hence, morally flawed works can be artistically valuable in virtue of being immoral. Proper appreciation on this view consists in getting a precise take on the visual appearance of the moment. The features that underlie the vividness of these objects and portrayals are all very different. The claim that aesthetic experience is disinterested, that it involves the free play of the understanding and imagination, that it is characterized by subjective universality, are just as obscure, but now even more questionable, than before. It simply reflects the fact that, from different viewpoints, things can be of value in different ways. They put words together to make lines, and lines together to make a poem. (See the section titled Art as a Practice below for an elaboration of this idea.) Chapter 8 on fictional representation now includes a substantial discussion of emotional responses to fiction and the apparent paradox engendered by these responses. There are advocates of both approaches. However, it really is not so different. Identical scores might be produced in the same musico-historical setting, but if one is made with the intention that it be played to parody the other, it is plausibly a different work. Malcolm Budd (1996) argues that to properly appreciate nature one has to appreciate it as nature, and to do this one has to conceive of the object of appreciation as some natural thing (such as a snowfield). First, art functions are normally tied to the experience of the work. Attempts to identify the scientific knowledge needed to fully appreciate nature. 129 is unfortunate because we want interpretations to illuminate artworks, not merely supplement our conceptions of artworks. Simple functionalism: An approach to defining art in terms of one or more functions artworks fulfill. The overall artistic value of a work is the composite of all the types of value, including aesthetic value, which it attains. To aesthetically appreciate nature we must have knowledge of the different environments of nature and of the systems and elements within those environments (Carlson 1979, 273). It might seem as if there is an obvious answer. One problem with whatever-works intentionalism is that it is unable to make the important distinction between what someone says on the occasion of utterance and what is conveyed by the utterance on that occasion. (For those interested in a finer-grained classification of solutions to the paradox of fiction, see Davies 2009, Levinson 1997a, Neill 2009.) There are still other conceptions which have achieved some importance, but which suffer from similar limitations.4 Instead of itemizing these, let us ask: is there a conception that succeeds better both in covering the range of aesthetic experiences and explaining what unifies them under this concept? Do artworks have meanings, and are these determined by artists intentions? But works of music and literature are created, so they cannot be mere context-independent structures.3 Second, different works can share the same abstract structure, so these structures alone cannot be the works.4 Third, works have crucial artistic properties that derive not from their structure but from their origin. Is There a Text in This Class? This raises several interesting questions: Is what we appreciate in architectural art significantly different than what we appreciate in buildings that are not artworks? Is Architecture an Art Form? There can, perhaps, be mistaken conceptions, but there is not one concept that all correct conceptions have to conform to. Does it mean that all of our responses to fiction occur in the imagination, as it were? While the concept of art is by no means unique in being open-textured for Weitz and Ziff, the concept still stands apart from many other empirical concepts in one respect. The criticism is that this is not a constant feature of depictions. Is there a special point of view we adopt when we value something as art? 1991. Weitz, Morris. Moderate constructivists claim that artworks undergo changes as they receive new interpretations, as they enter new cultural contexts, or conceptual environments. 1956. A more useful model of aesthetic appreciation of nature might be found in a conception of aesthetic experience. 1970. A cognitive challenge exists in noticing phenomenal appearance, which requires two complementary abilities: to finely discriminate among properties in ones perceptual field and to overcome the habit of seeing according to broad classificatory categories (e.g., to suppose that a mountain side covered by trees looks green because trees are green). So we now have two broad types of reasons for investigating whether there are aesthetic properties and, if there are, how they should be characterized. They would classify neither the responses to fiction nor the simulated emotions occurring in deliberation as true instances of pity or fear. Florence, KY, USA: Routledge, 1997. p 88, PHILOSOPHY OF THE ARTS This may be a fair reply to my treatment of the argument up to this point. Are any of the judgments we make about it aesthetic judgments? It does, however, typically preclude, as we just saw, value in no way tied to the experience and the understanding of the work, such as monetary value, from being artistic value. Danto, Arthur. Further Reading Barnes, Annette. Some believe that such things as fictional characters actually exist (Howell 1979, Thomasson 1999, Van Inwagen 1977). What it does not do is tell us what depiction is. This chapter is concerned with the aesthetic appreciation of nature. Others think the crucial difference consists in the critical school or community to which one belongs. And if it is not fictional that I pity the character, all the more reason to think that what I feel for the character is the real thing (Davies 2009). Alternatively, one can say that the sentimental value that involves perceiving the songs expressive Artistic Value 241 properties has two components. The choice should depend on what we are really doing when we make aesthetic judgments: whether we are expressing something or reporting something. First Art and Arts Definition. Southern Journal of Philosophy 35:1934. However, it turns out that this approach wont work because, as we saw above, the considerations relevant to aesthetic evaluation apply to all buildings, and intentions regarding these considerations are likely to be extremely common among architects whether they are aiming to create art or not. The above examples illustrate this claim as well. For example, if one takes away an assumed communicative intention in the example given above, even where that intention goes awry by reference to a suit rather than soup, there is no saying whether the utterance is pointing out that your suit has a mundane zipper, an idiosyncratic artificial trout fly, or an unfortunately embedded insect, among other possibilities. . Third, the judgments that are relevant to the conclusion of this argument are classificatory judgments about candidate artworks. First, aesthetic considerations are not the only ones relevant to deciding how well these aims are achieved. Morels are highly distinctive and especially delicious mushrooms that pop up briefly at the height of spring and are found in woodlands where one can also see spring wildflowers and new foliage. Further, it is plausible that the achievement of this value is an essential part Artistic Value 239 of the artists project when some works are created and an important part of what is appreciated by the audiences of those works. Let us suppose we are imagining that in one way or another, we share a world with the fictional characters. The other vividly imagines the first experience and interprets it. Alternatively, it could be said that, like selfless absorption, the proposal offers a coherent conception that captures some of the things we label aesthetic experiences. It not only captures this partial extension, but also provides a reason we think of these items in terms of the aesthetic, namely, a conception of aesthetic experience actually in use. The coherence of Dodds view depends on whether something can be a symbol tied to a certain community before the symbol is used by the community or even before the existence of the community itself. When these three factors do interact, the object manifests itself in a certain way to the observer. The columns support a portico, under which is a swimming pool surrounded by a garden. Among depictions, the objects that are said not to be fictional are portraits, technical and scientific drawing, photographs intended to record bits of reality, among other items. Clearly, we can evaluate such attitudes ascribable to a work from an ethical point of view. Philosophical aesthetics is the branch of philosophy which explores issues having to do with art, beauty, and related phenomena. One also thinks of at least some of these looks as expressive or suggestive of actual functions fulfilled by the building. What Are Aesthetic Properties? Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society. At this point, the reader may be thinking back to the discussion of hypothetical intentionalism in chapter 7, which argued that there are convincing counterexamples to this view as a theory of work meaning. First, we are being asked to distort the object of appreciation by imagining (though not actually believing) it is an artifact when it is no such thing. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Art need not be made only to be contemplated for its own sake. University Park: Pennsylvania University Press. However, in one case the experience is valued for its own sake, in the other it is not. The considerations relevant to such appreciation or evaluation are not strikingly different with buildings that are and are not artworks. I merely told a lie. We have tentatively rejected the objection, concluding that the considerations it brings forward are more relevant to environmental ethics and policy than to judgments of natural beauty. Its advantage lies in its inclusiveness, and in its seemingly straightforward mapping of aesthetic experience onto attention to aesthetic properties. What is the bearing of this on the artistic and aesthetic appreciation and evaluation of architecture? Health might be a good example. 1993. 7. Music is expressive only if we can perceive, that is, hear emotion in the music. By no means, and this is so, whether we take the intention in question as actual or hypothetical. 2005. Notice one more thing: if you want to know what makes a fishing rod a good one, it wont be very illuminating to be told that people have valuable experiences with it. There are exceptions, the best known of which are video games, which generate fictions that require audience intervention. Questions about the way we value aesthetic objects and the objectivity or subjectivity of that value will also be discussed below. We will then consider whether ethical defects ever enhance aesthetic value. Overview of the debate about artistic value and an argument for a pluralist conception. It is characterized by two properties not possessed by ordinary seeing: non-existence and a tendency to twofoldness. Goldman, Alan. It is very common to think of instrumental music, or at least many pieces of music, in these terms. Both, however, have received a great deal of attention and exercised considerable influence, so each deserves some discussion here. 1996. Yet he also says, An artwork may be beautiful because of its grace, or balance or power or vivid colors (23). Art and Philosophy. Interestingly, once we distinguish between aesthetics and the philosophy of art, the first approach mentioned above, considered as a conception of aesthetics, is perfectly consistent with the third approach. The Critique of Judgement, trans. It only indicates that some amount of false belief does not disqualify the appreciative experience. If so, it can express ways of life less than ideal, but rather open to ethical criticism. Unfortunately, this proposal for identifying central art forms invites an objection to historical functionalism. Although Kant did not talk about aesthetic experience in so many words, one interesting, complex, and very influential characterization of it, derives from his views about aesthetic judgments.1 Kant thought that four features are essential to such judgments and distinguish it from others with which it might be confused. This is a concern with the potential micro-consequences of the 254 Chapter Twelve expression of attitude. Duchamp failed because he lacked the relevant proprietary right to the building. 1981. Proponents of the intentional view sometimes claim that interpretation is not, as it would appear, a two-place relation (A is the interpretation of B), but is one that has three terms. The flawed aspect of those commitments makes a positive contribution to the artistic (aesthetic) value of the work. . 2001. In literary forms, it suffices that we can infer the emotional state from the expressive phenomena. that chapters of the novel and scenes of the movie parallel parts of Homers Odyssey. Specific-value property: A property reference to which both describes and evaluates an object possessing the property. It is best for now to live with this vagueness in the distinction between aesthetic and nonaesthetic properties because further progress in identifying the range of aesthetic properties is only possible after we have investigated some additional issues. However, this objection misses the point. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 7. This is very plausible if being vivid in color is higher-order perceptual property, since being a vivid character portrayal is not a perceptual property of any sort. Officially, Ridley is offering an account of musical expressiveness, but (as the exposition above indicates), he often speaks of accounting for the experience of musical expressiveness. Irony as a Principle of Structure. In Literary Opinion in America, ed. The problem with this move is that it just changes the subject from an attempt to figure out why we classify objects as art to a mere stipulation that something is art if it is an aesthetic object. The conception of a realized intention, on this view, is an intention consistent with the framework provided by the operative conventions. Oxford: Oxford University Press. We may believe it will be open to multiple interpretations that will deliver new thoughts or that even under our original interpretation, we havent exhausted the thoughts that can be derived from it. The book, story, or representation clearly does exist. Evaluating Art. Tolstoy, Leo. We will then be in a position to choose among autonomism, ethicism, and the antitheoretical view. Identity thesis: Claims that the meaning of a work is identical to what the artist intended to do in the work. A collection of essays on the ethical importance of literature. Dickie originally conceived of this institution as one that exists to confer an official status, even if it does so through informal procedures. . There is nothing morally suspect about soliciting such a complex response from us. But this does not imply that we literally feel nothing. Second, I propose that the basic case or the most standard way of hearing emotion should be built on the perception of an emotional qualityan emotion characteristic in appearance. Thus the chief aesthetic flaw in the imaginary Green Henry is its failure to represent a convincing clash of values. . In recent years, the idea that art expresses an actual persons emotion has given way to the idea that art is expressive of emotion in virtue of possessing expressive properties, such as the property of being sad, joyful, or anxious, however those properties are analyzed. It also has implications for what makes a given work the individual work it is. When all these conditions are met, the hypothetical intention identified is the meaning of the work. Irreplaceability would seem to be guaranteed if at least part of the value of an artwork is unique to that work. Beardsley, Monroe. Thus, the facade of a Georgian row house presents a complete vertical element consisting plinth, cornice, entablature, column, capital and molding (Scruton 1994, 18). The next chapter is about a central mode of representation in visual art: depiction. While the body of the poem emphasizes the dwindling of everything in old age, the final couplet emphasizes the intensifying of a love, which will soon lose its object. Intentional object: An object defined by the way it is conceived or interpreted. These are a given and are unquestioned rather than the reward of an autonomous journey of discovery. . 1996. Dickie, George. . The problem of the statue and the lump of clay is an example. We should conceive of literary and musical works on this model. Kant also speaks of agreeable art as well as fine art. There are many things we do (or at least seem to) value for themselves: pleasure, knowledge, freedom, happiness, intimacy, certain achievements, various experiences and activities. Finally, there are things that appear to fulfill functions of art to a high degree, but no one would call them artworks. John, Eileen. But, there is a complication. When people express their emotions, they make their feelings manifest to another. Nevertheless, cinema and photography give every appearance of being recognized art forms. Glossary 307 Immoralism: The view that ethical defects (merits) can make artworks aesthetically better (worse). Medicine, especially unpleasant medicine, is a good example of something we value in this way. cit., for an essentialist account of literary value based on a very different conception of literature as a practice. Doesnt this strongly suggest that it is not a contingent fact that David is not just a pile of variously shaped pieces of marble along with some vials of gasses? Why we see-in the picture objects arrayed in the pictorial space in a certain way? There are various issues concerning the means of production of a work that are more compelling. A different type of example would be antiaesthetic art (sometimes simply called anti-art). Sartwell, Crispin. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 6180. It all depends on the many particulars of a given work. However, even if there is such an advantage, it doesnt follow that these experiences are not valued for themselves by individual human beings. Thus the Nazi swastika is a symbol of the Nazi party that existed in Germany in the 1930s and 1940s, and perhaps subsequent political parties that are modeled on the German. The myth of illusion 2. A view or vista is an object that can be seen from a relatively fixed point of view. So wheels and lumps of iron (even wheel-shaped lumps) are both physical objects, but different kinds of physical objects with different kinds of identity conditions. Anne Sheppard discusses what it is that all works of art have in common - what gives them their value as art - and asks, wisely, whether there can ever be one correct interpretation of a work of art. Chapter 12 on the interaction of ethical and aesthetic value has also been substantially enlarged by a discussion of immoralismthe view that ethical defects in an artwork can make it aesthetically better. The widely shared intention is to create an object for public consumption, an object available to a public absent the artist. Others (Gould, 1995), however, have claimed that a substantive understanding of when form is significant can be recovered from formalist descriptions of artworks purportedly in possession of it. One hopes that chapter 11 discredited this view. Hence, even this broadened conception of the valuable experience of the work can be construed as maintaining the line between different evaluative perspectives. We now have three options. However, we did not endorse this way of relating aesthetic experience and aesthetic properties because we were not convinced that the latter really are ways of appearing. Lets test the viability of this view by considering objections. I think the most promising suggestion is to use one or another of the conceptions of aesthetic experience mentioned in chapter 3 to provide conceptions of aesthetic properties and evaluations. A defender of the impression view can argue that two different reactions have been confused in the above claim. The implicit endorsement, I have claimed, ought not to interfere with this engagement, but I have not claimed it positively enhances it or that it ought to. But it would be possible Artistic Value 237 for someone to take from Dantos theory of art the view that arts value lies chiefly in the value of the conceptions (attitudes, points of view about some subject matter) it offers. This strikes many people as counterintuitive. Is this model superior to the others that we have considered so far? We see an animal in the cloud (or we see the cloud as an animal). Aesthetic Creation. An additional reason is supplied by pluralism about artistic value. These considerations suffice to show that photographs are not a counterexample to the claim that depiction can be understood in terms of seeing-in or that a defining property of seeing-in is nonexistence. Would that also give it artistic value? The story, taking the form of an old chronicle, simply relates the facts. The reader must decide the ethical nature of Kohlhasss character and behavior. A critique of constructivism and a defense of contextualism. Graham, Gordon. A second objection to the analogy with poetic expression claims that it is not apt because the two kinds of artistic expression are so different. But they may not be quite the same surface properties. Responding Emotionally to Fictions. Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 67: 26984. Typically it is a pleasurable state of mind and this provides a transparent explanation of why it is valuable for itself. Third, we may believe that we have not exhausted the poem of the 232 Chapter Eleven experiences it could make available. As we explore the issues mentioned above, the debate among these very different approaches will emerge more sharply. Bell, Clive. Another may be vivid because of a single, salient, and powerful image. As Collingwood suggests, one may not only imaginatively experience an emotion in reading a poem, but one might take away from it ways of identifying ones own emotions that break stereotypes and lead to new self-knowledge. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 22232. Every drawing or painting has structural features, though, as with literature and music, there are different ways of defining structure. Though both assessments are reasonable, this second assessment is the more reasonable. Furthermore, at least the first two items, the police report and the scientific paper if not the shopping list, are works. However, there is a different way of appealing to hypothetical intentions that poses a more serious challenge to moderate actual intentionalism. Questions 1. This version of the artwork model is based on a faulty understanding of aesthetic appreciation as a synonym for the appreciation of art. Fourth, there seems to be a straightforward way of supplementing the account of hearing emotion in music to provide an account of expressiveness per se. Truth, Fiction, and Literature: A Philosophical Perspective. The new premise 2 seems to be an improvement over the original premise 2. If we wanted to explain the existence of beech trees along a ridge in a forest, we would refer to various features of the forest environment, properties of beech trees, and laws of biology. Jerrold Levinson. Just because artworks have essential properties, it does not follow that they all belong to the same ontological kind. 1998. Of course, the mere fact that one statement conveniently bolsters another that one happens to believe is no reason to accept the former, even if it is a motive for doing so. M. Hjort and S. Laver. New York: St. Martins Press. On the other, we have included experiences that bring pleasure primarily because they please one or more of the senses, but place few demands on other mental powers. According to Ridley, it requires a sympathetic emotional response. If one is wearing red-tinged sunglasses one imposes an intervening medium that affects the light waves that reach ones eyes. This view has problems of its own. This is an existential generalization, and it requires some cases to generalize from for us to have good reason to accept it. The only way to save the affective response argument is to show that a moral defect sometimes is or entails an aesthetic defect in virtue of making a work unworthy of a prescribed response, and to provide a principled way of picking out the occasions when this is so. If so, the novel prescribes a response to these things, namely, belief, which just falls outside its aesthetic aims. Levinson, Jerrold. A different way bears a kinship with the object model, since it involves the scrutinizing of specific objects contained in the view. First, if seeing-in occurs at all in photographs, we can see-in them kinds of things not represented, just as we can with paintings. CHAPTER SIX What Kind of Object Is a Work of Art? 1. 293 294 References Berleant, Arnold. Instead of trying to identify a minimal sort of knowledge that we must bring to nature, a good way to approach the question of whether we need some knowledge to appreciate nature is to ask whether appreciation based on false belief should be regarded as essentially flawed. Defending Musical Platonism. British Journal of Aesthetics 42:380402. When she says, Theres a nice derangement of epitaphs, her utterance just cant mean that there is a nice arrangement of epithets, because arrangement is not one of the conventional meanings of derangement and similarly for epitaph and epithet. First, such claims tend to be based on rough and ready impressions rather than painstaking efforts to sort out where agreement exists and where it doesnt. One example of such a case is irony. One might object to this account of general evaluative aesthetic properties on another ground, namely, that it is too broad. 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